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The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Vol 66, Issue 3 344-352, Copyright © 1984 by Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Inc
Biomechanical analysis of human ligament grafts used in knee-ligament repairs and reconstructions
FR Noyes, DL Butler, ES Grood, RF Zernicke and MS Hefzy
Virtually all types of collagenous tissues have been transferred in and
around the knee joint for intra-articular and extra-articular ligament
reconstructions. However, the mechanical properties (in particular,
strength) of such grafts have not been determined in tissues from young
adult donors, where age and disuse-related effects have been excluded. To
provide this information, we subjected ligament graft tissues to
high-strain-rate failure tests to determine their strength and elongation
properties. The results were compared with the mechanical properties of
anterior cruciate ligaments from a similar young-adult donor population.
The study indicated that some graft tissues used in ligament
reconstructions are markedly weak and therefore are at risk for elongation
and failure at low forces. Grafts utilizing prepatellar retinacular tissues
(as in certain anterior-cruciate reconstructions) and others in which a
somewhat narrow width of fascia lata or distal iliotibial tract is utilized
are included in this at-risk group. Wider grafts from the iliotibial tract
or fascia lata would of course proportionally increase ultimate strength.
The semitendinosus and gracilis tendons are stronger, having 70 and 49 per
cent, respectively, of the initial strength of anterior cruciate ligaments.
The bone-patellar tendon-bone graft (fourteen to fifteen millimeters wide,
medial or central portion) was the strongest, with a mean strength of 159
to 168 per cent of that of anterior cruciate ligaments. Patellar
tendon-bone units, based on grip-to-grip motions, were found to be three to
four times stiffer than similarly gripped anterior cruciate ligaments,
while gracilis and semitendinosus tendon preparations had values that were
nearly identical to those of anterior cruciate ligaments.(ABSTRACT
TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Healing and Repair of Ligament Injuries in the Knee
J. Am. Acad. Ortho. Surg.,
November 1, 2000;
8(6):
364 - 372.
[Abstract]
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S. Nicklin, C. Waller, P. Walker, W. K. Chung, and W. R. Walsh
In Vitro Structural Properties of Braided Tendon Grafts
Am. J. Sports Med.,
November 1, 2000;
28(6):
790 - 793.
[Abstract]
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K. P. Black, M. M. Saunders, K. C. Stube, M. J.R. Moulton, and C. R. Jacobs
Effects of Interference Fit Screw Length on Tibial Tunnel Fixation for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Am. J. Sports Med.,
November 1, 2000;
28(6):
846 - 849.
[Abstract]
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J. C. Brand Jr, D. Pienkowski, E. Steenlage, D. Hamilton, D. L. Johnson, and D. N.M. Caborn
Interference Screw Fixation Strength of a Quadrupled Hamstring Tendon Graft Is Directly Related to Bone Mineral Density and Insertion Torque
Am. J. Sports Med.,
September 1, 2000;
28(5):
705 - 710.
[Abstract]
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J. Brand Jr., A. Weiler, D. N. M. Caborn, C. H. Brown Jr., and D. L. Johnson
Graft Fixation in Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Am. J. Sports Med.,
September 1, 2000;
28(5):
761 - 774.
[Abstract]
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E. R. Aronowitz, T. J. Ganley, J. R. Goode, J. R. Gregg, and J. S. Meyer
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction In Adolescents With Open Physes
Am. J. Sports Med.,
March 1, 2000;
28(2):
168 - 175.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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M. Yamanaka, K. Yasuda, H. Tohyama, H. Nakano, and T. Wada
The Effect of Cyclic Displacement On the Biomechanical Characteristics of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstructions
Am. J. Sports Med.,
November 1, 1999;
27(6):
772 - 777.
[Abstract]
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D. M. Stadelmaier, W. R. Lowe, O. A. Ilahi, P. C. Noble, and H. W. Kohl III
Cyclic Pull-Out Strength of Hamstring Tendon Graft Fixation with Soft Tissue Interference Screws: Influence of Screw Length
Am. J. Sports Med.,
November 1, 1999;
27(6):
778 - 783.
[Abstract]
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M. Giurea, P. Zorilla, A. A. Amis, and P. Aichroth
Comparative Pull-Out and Cyclic-Loading Strength Tests of Anchorage of Hamstring Tendon Grafts in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Am. J. Sports Med.,
September 1, 1999;
27(5):
621 - 625.
[Abstract]
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I. S. Corry, J. M. Webb, A. J. Clingeleffer, and L. A. Pinczewski
Arthroscopic Reconstruction of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament: A Comparison of Patellar Tendon Autograft and Four-Strand Hamstring Tendon Autograft
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1999;
27(4):
444 - 454.
[Abstract]
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D. L. HAMNER, C. H. BROWN, M. E. STEINER, A. T. HECKER, and W. C. HAYES
Hamstring Tendon Grafts for Reconstruction of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament: Biomechanical Evaluation of the Use of Multiple Strands and Tensioning Techniques
J. Bone Joint Surg. Am.,
April 1, 1999;
81(4):
549 - 57.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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T. W. Wilson, M. P. Zafuta, and M. Zobitz
A Biomechanical Analysis of Matched Bone-Patellar Tendon-Bone and Double-Looped Semitendinosus and Gracilis Tendon Grafts
Am. J. Sports Med.,
March 1, 1999;
27(2):
202 - 207.
[Abstract]
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H. U. Staubli, L. Schatzmann, P. Brunner, L. Rincon, and L.-P. Nolte
Mechanical Tensile Properties of the Quadriceps Tendon and Patellar Ligament in Young Adults
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1999;
27(1):
27 - 34.
[Abstract]
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H. E. Magen, S. M. Howell, and M. L. Hull
Structural Properties of Six Tibial Fixation Methods for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Soft Tissue Grafts
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1999;
27(1):
35 - 43.
[Abstract]
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R. Seil, S. Rupp, P. W. Krauss, A. Benz, and D. M. Kohn
Comparison of Initial Fixation Strength Between Biodegradable and Metallic Interference Screws and a Press-Fit Fixation Technique in a Porcine Model
Am. J. Sports Med.,
November 1, 1998;
26(6):
815 - 819.
[Abstract]
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T. R. Stapleton, J. I. Waldrop, C. R. Ruder, T. A. Parrish, and T. E. Kuivila
Graft Fixation Strength with Arthroscopic Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: Two-Incision Rear Entry Technique Compared With One-Incision Technique
Am. J. Sports Med.,
May 1, 1998;
26(3):
442 - 445.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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D. Otto, L. A. Pinczewski, A. Clingeleffer, and R. Odell
Five-Year Results of Single-Incision Arthroscopic Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction with Patellar Tendon Autograft
Am. J. Sports Med.,
March 1, 1998;
26(2):
181 - 188.
[Abstract]
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S. M. Desio, R. T. Burks, and K. N. Bachus
Soft Tissue Restraints to Lateral Patellar Translation in the Human Knee
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1998;
26(1):
59 - 65.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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A. Weiler, H. J. Windhagen, M. J. Raschke, A. Laumeyer, and R. F. G. Hoffmann
Biodegradable Interference Screw Fixation Exhibits Pull-Out Force and Stiffness Similar to Titanium Screws
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1998;
26(1):
119 - 128.
[Abstract]
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R. F. LaPrade, C. D. Hamilton, R. D. Montgomery, F. Wentorf, and H. D. Hawkins
The Reharvested Central Third of the Patellar Tendon: A Histologic and Biomechanical Analysis
Am. J. Sports Med.,
December 1, 1997;
25(6):
779 - 785.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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G. T. Davies and W.-K. Pun
Fixation of the Tibial Bone Block in Patellar Tendon Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Am. J. Sports Med.,
September 1, 1997;
25(5):
691 - 691.
[PDF]
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N. J. Rowden, D. Sher, G. J. Rogers, and K. Schindhelm
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Graft Fixation: Initial Comparison of Patellar Tendon and Semitendinosus Autografts in Young Fresh Cadavers
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1997;
25(4):
472 - 478.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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K. R. Blickenstaff, W. A. Grana, and D. Egle
Analysis of a Semitendinosus Autograft in a Rabbit Model
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1997;
25(4):
554 - 559.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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N. L. Harris, D. A. B. Smith, L. Lamoreaux, and M. Purnell
Central Quadriceps Tendon for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: Part I: Morphometric and Biomechanical Evaluation
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1997;
25(1):
23 - 28.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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M.L. Hull
Analysis of Skiing Accidents Involving Combined Injuries to the Medial Collateral and Anterior Cruciate Ligaments
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1997;
25(1):
35 - 40.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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K. Yasuda, J. Tsujino, Y. Tanabe, and K. Kaneda
Effects of Initial Graft Tension on Clinical Outcome After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: Autogenous Doubled Hamstring Tendons Connected in Series with Polyester Tapes
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1997;
25(1):
99 - 106.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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A. Maeda, K. Shino, S. Horibe, K. Nakata, and G. Buccafusca
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction with Multistranded Autogenous Semitendinosus Tendon
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1996;
24(4):
504 - 509.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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K. E. Wilk, R. F. Escamilla, G. S. Fleisig, S. W. Barrentine, J. R. Andrews, and M. L. Boyd
A Comparison of Tibiofemoral Joint Forces and Electromyographic Activit During Open and Closed Kinetic Chain Exercises
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1996;
24(4):
518 - 527.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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E. M. Wojtys, S. U. Kothari, and L. J. Huston
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Functional Brace Use in Sports
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1996;
24(4):
539 - 546.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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L. C. S. M. HOWELL and C. M. A. TAYLOR
Brace-Free Rehabilitation, with Early Return to Activity, for Knees Reconstructed with a Double-Looped Semitendinosus and Gracilis Graft*{{dagger}}
J. Bone Joint Surg. Am.,
June 1, 1996;
78(6):
814 - 25.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
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F. Pena, T. Grontvedt, G. A. Brown, A. K. Aune, and L. Engebretsen
Comparison of Failure Strength Between Metallic and Absorbable Interference Screws: Influence of Insertion Torque, Tunnel-Bone Block Gap, Bone Mineral Density, and Interference
Am. J. Sports Med.,
June 1, 1996;
24(3):
329 - 334.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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G. Y. F. Ng, B. W. Oakes, l. D. McLean, O. W. Deacon, and D. Lampard
The Long-Term Biomechanical and Viscoelastic Performance of Repairing Anterior Cruciate Ligament after Hemitransection Injury in a Goat Model
Am. J. Sports Med.,
January 1, 1996;
24(1):
109 - 117.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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B. M. Fideler, C. T. Vangsness JR, Bin Lu, C. Orlando, and T. Moore
Gamma Irradiation: Effects on Biomechanical Properties of Human Bone-Patellar Tendon-Bone Allografts
Am. J. Sports Med.,
September 1, 1995;
23(5):
643 - 646.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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B. D. Beynnon, D. Proffer, D. J. Drez Jr., C. J. Stankewich, and R. J. Johnson
Biomechanical Assessment of the Healing Response of the Rabbit Patellar Tendon After Removal of Its Central Third
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1995;
23(4):
452 - 457.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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C. M. Flahiff, A. T. Brooks, J.M. Hollis, J. L. Vander Schilden, and R. W. Nicholas
Biomechanical Analysis of Patellar Tendon Allografts as a Function of Donor Age
Am. J. Sports Med.,
June 1, 1995;
23(3):
354 - 358.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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R. A. Rubinstein JR, K. D. Shelbourne, C. D. VanMeter, J. R. McCarroll, A. C. Rettig, and R. L. Gloyeske
Effect on Knee Stability if Full Hyperextension is Restored Immediately After Autogenous Bone-Patellar Tendon-Bone Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Am. J. Sports Med.,
June 1, 1995;
23(3):
365 - 368.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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J. M. Marumoto, C. Jordan, and R. Akins
A Biomechanical Comparison of Lateral Retinacular Releases
Am. J. Sports Med.,
March 1, 1995;
23(2):
151 - 155.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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K. Shino, B. W. Oakes, S. Horibe, K. Nakata, and N. Nakamura
Collagen Fibril Populations in Human Anterior Cruciate Ligament Allografts: Electron Microscopic Analysis
Am. J. Sports Med.,
March 1, 1995;
23(2):
203 - 209.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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K. D. Shelbourne, R. A. Rubinstein JR, C. D. VanMeter, J. R. McCarroll, and A. C. Rettig
Correlation of Remaining Patellar Tendon Width with Quadriceps Strength After Autogenous Bone-patellar tendon-bone Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Am. J. Sports Med.,
December 1, 1994;
22(6):
774 - 778.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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B. S. Kamps, L. H. Linder, C. E. DeCamp, and R. C. Haut
The Influence of Immobilization Versus Exercise on Scar Formation in the Rabbit Patellar Tendon After Excision of the Central Third
Am. J. Sports Med.,
December 1, 1994;
22(6):
803 - 811.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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J. E. Bechtold, D. T. Eastlund, M. K. Butts, D. F. Lagerborg, and R. F. Kyle
The Effects of Freeze-drying and Ethylene Oxide Sterilization on the Mechanical Properties of Human Patellar Tendon
Am. J. Sports Med.,
July 1, 1994;
22(4):
562 - 566.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
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